শর্টস সৃষ্টি
xzcZcxA Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis d A Review paper on emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A Review paper on
emotional intelligence:
Models and relationship with other constructs
Dr. Sandhya Mehta1, Namrata Singh2
1Deputy Director, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
mehta_sandhya@yahoo.com
2Lecturer, Guru Nanak Institute of Management and
Technology, Ludhiana. (Punjab)
namrata_deswal24@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The concept of emotional intelligence is of unparalleled
interest in both the popular literature and within academia. Much
work is being done to discover exactly what emotional
intelligence encompasses and how it would be most effectively
applied. The present paper will attempt to review the
literature surrounding emotional intelligence (E.I.). It shall study the
construct of E.I. by reviewing the different models, the
measures used to assess them, and the relationship between these
models and other similar constructs. Further, it
will review the
applicability of the E.I.
construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis models and other
similar constructs. Further,
it will review the applicability of the
E.I. construct to applied academic
settings and shall
propose how future
research in this area
could be applied to
various levels to
enhance teacher
effectiveness.
Indexing terms/Keywords
Emotional intelligence,constructs,academic settings
Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines
Business Management, Human resource management
SUBJECT
CLASSIFICATION
Emotional Intelligence
TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Historical Inquiry and Literary Analysis
A story is a narrative or account of real or imagined
events, often featuring people and an interesting plot, and can be presented in
written form, spoken word, images, or other media. Stories serve various
purposes, including entertainment, education, and cultural preservation, and
can be short, like a short story or a social media story, or long, like a
novel. A story is a narrative or account of real or imagined events,
often featuring people and an interesting plot, and can be presented in written
form, spoken word, images, or other media. Stories serve various purposes,
including entertainment, education, and cultural preservation, and can be
short, like a short story or a social media story, or long, like a novel. A
story is a narrative or account of real or imagined events, often
featuring people and an interesting plot, and can be presented in written form,
spoken word, images, or other media. Stories serve various purposes,
including entertainment, education, and cultural preservation, and can be
short, like a short story or a social media story, or long.
Council for
Innovative Research
Peer Review Research Publishing System
Journal: International Journal of Management &
Information Technology
Vol.4, No.3
editor@cirworld.com
www.cirworld.com, member.cirworld.com
ISSN 2278-5612
I
343 | P a g e
J u l y , 2 0 1 3
1.INTRODUCTION
The topic of emotional intelligence has witnessed
unparalleled interest in both the popular literature and within academia.
Programs
designed to increase emotional
intelligence have been implemented in numerous settings, and courses on
developing one’s emotional intelligence have been introduced
in organisations, universities, schools and other institutions..
But the question arise, what exactly is emotional intelligence? As is the case with all other constructs
(i.e. intelligence,
leadership, personality etc.), several schools of thought
exist which aim to accurately describe and measure the notion of
emotional intelligence. At the most general level, emotional
intelligence (E.I.) refers to the ability to recognize and regulate
emotions in ourselves and others (Goleman, 2001).
Thorndike,an influential psychologist in the areas of
learning, education, and intelligence established that humans possess
several types of intelligence, one type being called social
intelligence, or the ability to understand and manage males and
females, and to act wisely in human relations (Thorndike,
1920). Further David Wechsler, the originator of the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) intelligence tests,
decsribed both non-intellective and
intellective elements of intelligence.
The non-intellective elements, which included affective,
personal, and social factors, he later proposed were significant for
predicting one's ability to succeed in life
(Wechsler, 1958). Later in the
century, Gardner’s multiple
intelligences (1983)
also mentioned the significance of emotional expression in
organisation behavior. Emotional intelligence represents two of
the seven intelligences
categorized by Gardner (1983):
Interpersonal and
intrapersonal intelligences
while other five
intelligences
include verbal intelligence,
logical intelligence,visual intelligence,
kinesthetic intelligence and
musical
intelligence.Gardner referred interpersonal intelligence
as the ability to understand other
people such as motivation of
their behavior, working style and attitude while
intrapersonal intelligence as the ability to set norm for oneself and use that
in life.
Research in the field
of emotional intelligence is dominated by
three primary theorists
including Bar-On, Mayer and
Salovey and Daniel Goleman.Reuven Bar –On, a
prominent researcher and
originator of the term
"emotion quotient"
views emotional intelligence as being concerned with
understanding oneself and others, relating to people, and adapting
to and coping with
the immediate surroundings to be more successful in dealing with environmental demands (Bar-On,
1997).Salovey and Mayer (1990) termed emotional intelligence as “a subset of social
intelligence seperable from general
intelligence which
entails the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them
and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and
actions”. Later on they expanded their model and defined EI as the
ability of an individual to perceive accurately ,evaluate
and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings
when they facilitate
thought; the ability
to understand emotion
and emotional knowledge; and
the ability to
regulate
emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer
and Salovey, 1997).
Daniel Goleman, a psychologist and science writer discovered
the work of Salovey and Mayer in the 1990's.
Inspired by
their findings, he began to conduct his own research in the
area and eventually wrote Emotional
Intelligence: Why It Can
Matter More Than IQ (Goleman, 1995), the landmark book which
familiarized both the public and private sectors with the
idea of emotional intelligence.Weinberger (2002b)
provided a summary of the research work conducted in the area of
emotion
including emotional intelligence.
His summary broke
down the study
of emotion from
three disciplines; a)
sociological
domain; b) psychological
domain and c)
HRD. (See table 1)
.The foundation of
the study of
emotional
intelligence began in the early workings of the study of
emotion and the study of intelligence. The initial research around
the topic of emotion was in the sociological and
psychological domains. Sociologically, the early researchers looked at
such areas as emotional labor, emotional contagion ,feeling
rules, emotion and rationality.Within the psychological realm,
the areas of emotion and motivation, empathy and mood
were researched.
2.A BRIEF HISTORY OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
·
1930s – Edward Thorndike described the concept of "social
intelligence" as the ability to get along with other
people.
·
1940s – David Wechsler suggested that affective components of intelligence may
be essential to success in life.
·
1950s – Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow described how people
can build emotional strength.
· 1975
- Howard Gardner publishes The Shattered Mind, which introduced the concept of
multiple intelligences.
· 1985
- Wayne Payne introduced the term emotional intelligence in his doctoral
dissertation entitled "A study of
emotion: developing emotional intelligence;
self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire (theory, structure of
reality, problem-solving, contraction/expansion, tuning
in/coming out/letting go)."
· 1987
– In an article published in Mensa Magazine, Keith Beasley used the term
"emotional quotient." It has been
suggested that this is the first published use of the term,
although Reuven Bar-On claims to have used the term
in an unpublished version of his graduate thesis.
· 1990
– Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer published their landmark article,
"Emotional Intelligence," in
the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.
· 1995
- The concept of emotional intelligence was popularized
after publication of psychologist and New York
Times science writer Daniel Goleman’s book Emotional
Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.
ISSN 2278-5612
I
344 | P a g e
J u l y , 2 0 1 3
Table 1 : Study of Emotions from other disciplines
SOCIOLOGICAL DOMAIN
PSYCHOLOGICAL DOMAIN
HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
Research
Interests
Emotional Labor
Hochshild (1979;
1983)
Van Maanen and
Kunda (1989)
Rafaeli and Sutton
(1987; 1990)
Morris and Feldman
(1996)
Wharton (1993)
Emotional Contagion
Rafaeli and Sutton
(1987)
Hatfield, Cacioppo,
and Rapson (1994)
Verbeke (1997)
Doherty (1998)
Domagalski (1999)
Feeling rules/emotion
of work setting
Goffman (1969)
Hochschild (1983)
Rafaeli and Sutton
(1987)
Scheff (1990)
Emotion and
Rationality
Fineman (1993; 1999)
Hearn (1993)
Putnam and Mumby
(1993)
Ashforth and
Humphrey (1995)
Emotion and Motivation
Pinder (1998)
Empathy
Mehrabian and Epstein
(1972)
Mood
Mayer and Bremer (1985)
Mayer and Gaschke (1988)
Mayer, Mamberg, and
Volarth (1988)
George and Brief (1992)
Affect and Mood
Estrada, Isen and Young
(1997)
Weiss and Cropanzao
(1996)
Emotion
Plutchik (1984)
Mayer, DiPaolo, and
Salovey (1990)
Damasio (1994)
Mayer and Geher (1996)
Emotional Intelligence
Mayer and Salovey (1993;
1997)
Mayer and Geher (1996)
Mayer and Salovey (1997)
Mayer, Salovey, and
Caruso (1999)
Goleman (1995; 1998)
Bar-On (1995)
Cooper and Sawaf (1997)
Weisinger (1998)
Various topics
in emotion work
Callahan Fabian
(1999)
Callahan and
McCollum
(2002)
Turnball (2002)
Short and Yorks
(2002)
Wells and
Callahan
(2002)
Emotional
Intelligence
Jordan and
Troth (2002)
Bryant (2000)
Weinberger
(2002)
Opengart and
Bierema
(2002)
Leeamornsiri
and Schwindt
(2002)
Source: Adapted from Weinberger, L. (2002)
This paper will review the
literature underlying the work of emotional intelligence . A
description of the three prominent
models of emotional intelligence are outlined to facilitate
a more thorough understanding of the concept. The relationship
between these different
models will be
examined, as will
the relationship between
emotional intelligence and
other
commonly related areas, namely personality, conflict
handling, academic achievement, leadership and work performance.
Next, a review of the research on emotional intelligence in
everyday life and applied settings will be discussed. Finally, this
paper will throw light
on implications for future
research and criticisms and controversies surrounding the construct
of
emotional intelligence.
ISSN 2278-5612
I
345 | P a g e
J u l y , 2 0 1 3
3.MODELS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
In reviewing the literature related to emotional
intelligence, the definitions and its components are broadly varied, and
each of them bears little resemblance on their own. Early
theorists such as Thorndike, Wechsler and Gardner paved the
way for the current experts in the field of emotional
intelligence. Among all the theories about emotional intelligence, the
models proposed by
Mayer and Salovey, Bar-on and Goleman have generated the most interest in terms
of research and
application in other
fields. Each of
their theoretical framework
conceptualise emotional intelligence from
one of two
perspectives: as a
form of pure intelligence consisting of
mental ability only (Mayer & Salovey,
1990), or as a mixed
intelligence consisting of both mental ability and
personality characteristics like optimism, adaptability and well-being.
Till now, the only ability model of emotional intelligence
is that proposed
by John Mayer and Peter Salovey. The two
mixed models distinguish from each other; the differences in
which are attributed to the varying
beliefs of what constitutes
emotional
intelligence (Bar-On, 1997;
Goleman, 1998). Reuven
Bar-On conceptualised a
model with npersonality
dimensions, emphasizing
the co-dependence of the ability
aspects of emotional intelligence with personality traits and
their application to
well-being. On the other hand, Daniel Goleman proposed a mixed model in
terms of performance by
combining an
individual’s abilities and personality implementing their corresponding effects
in the workplace (Goleman,
2001).
3.1The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso ability model
Peter Salovey and John Mayer first coined the term
"emotional intelligence" in 1990 (Salovey & Mayer, 1990) and have
since continued to conduct
research on the significance of the construct. They conceptualised Ability-Based Emotional
Intelligence Model (1997) which was based on the work of
Gardner and his view on personal intelligence. In 1990, they
created the term
“emotional intelligence” which
is regarded as
the affective dimensions of
intelligence and entails five
broad areas: knowing one’s own emotions, managing one’s own
emotions, self-motivation, recognizing emotions of others
and handling relationships with others. Salovey and Mayer
(1997) redefined emotional intelligence and proposed four
branches from basic processes. The first branch, emotional
perception, is the ability to be self-aware of emotions and to
express emotions and emotional needs accurately to others. It also includes the
ability to distinguish between accurate
and inaccurate or honest and tricky emotional expressions. The second branch,
emotional assimilation, is the ability to
distinguish among the different emotions one is feeling and
to identify those that are influencing their thought processes by
directing attention to important information. Just like
Emotional mood swings change the individual’s thinking pattern from
optimistic to pessimistic,
encouraging consideration of
multiple points of view. Emotional states distinctively encourage
specific
problem-solving approaches such
as happiness state facilitates inductive
reasoning and creativity. The
third
branch, emotional understanding, is the ability to understand complex emotions (such as feeling two emotions at once,
simultaneous feelings of love and hate or blends such as awe
as a combination of fear and surprise ) and the ability to
identify transitions from one to the other such as the
transition from anger to satisfaction or from anger to shame.Lastly,
the fourth branch, emotion management, is the ability to
stay open to both pleasant and unpleasant feelings, the ability to
reflectively connect or detach from an emotion depending upon it being judged to be
informative or utility and regulate
emotions in both ourselves and in others.
3.2Goleman’s Model of Emotional Intelligence
Daniel Goleman
is being credited for popularising the concept
of emotional intelligence in 1995, when
he wrote the
landmark book ‘Emotional Intelligence’. He described
emotional intelligence as "abilities such as being able to motivate
oneself and survive in the face of frustrations; to control
impulse and delay gratification; to manage one's moods and keep
distress from swamping the ability to think; to empathize
and to hope." Therefore, emotional intelligence is defined as “the
capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of
others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in
ourselves and in
our relationships” (Goleman,
1998, p 317).
Goleman's model outlines
the four main
constructs of
emotional intelligence. The first, self-awareness, is the
ability to identify one's emotions and recognize their impact while
using gut feelings to guide decisions. Self-management, the
second construct, involves controlling one's emotions
and
impulses and adapting to changing circumstances. The third
construct, social awareness consists of the
ability to sense,
understand, and react to other's emotions while
comprehending social networks. Finally, relationship management, the
fourth construct, entails the ability to inspire, influence,
and develop others while managing conflict (Goleman, 1998).
The model includes a set of emotional competencies within
each construct of emotional intelligence. Goleman opined that
Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather
learned capabilities that must be worked on and developed to
achieve
outstanding performance. Table
2 illustrates Goleman's
conceptual model of
emotional intelligence and
corresponding
emotional competencies. The
constructs and competencies
fall under one of four
categories: the
recognition of emotions in oneself or others and the
regulation of emotion in oneself or others.
Table 2: Goleman's (2001) Emotional Intelligence
Competencies
SELF
Personal competence
OTHER
Social Competence
RECOGNITION
Self-Awareness
Emotional
Self-Awareness
Accurate Self-Assessment
Social Awareness
Empathy
Service Orientation
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Self-Confidence
Organizational Awareness
REGULATION
Self-Management
Self-Control
Trustworthiness
Conscientiousness
Adaptability
Achievement Drive
Initiative
Relationship Management
Developing
Others
Influence
Communication
Conflict Management
Leadership
Change Catalyst
Building Bonds
Teamwork and Collaboration
3.3 Bar-On: A Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence
Bar-On (1998) introduced the term ‘Emotional Quotient’ (EQ)
in his doctoral dissertation
as an analogue to Intelligent Quotient (IQ). His model of
emotional intelligence can be viewed as a mixed intelligence, also
consisting of cognitive
ability and aspects of personality,health and well
being.He defined emotional
intelligence as “an
array of non
cognitive capabilities, competencies
and skills that
influence one’s ability
to succeed in
coping with
environmental demands and pressures” (Bar-On, 1997, p. 14). In nutshell, it
includes any ability that is not specifically
cognitive. The definition encompasses a number of areas like
emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, self-regard, self-
actualization,
independence, empathy,
interpersonal relationship, social
responsibility, problem
solving, reality testing,
flexibility, stress tolerance, impulse control, happiness
and optimism.
Bar-On’s model of emotional intelligence relates to the
potential for performance and success, rather than performance or
success itself, and is considered process-oriented rather
than outcome-oriented (Bar-On, 2002).
The model hypothesizes
that
individuals with higher
than average EQ’s
are generally more
successful in meeting
environmental demands and
pressures. Insufficient emotional intelligence can mean a
lack of success and the existence of emotional problems.Bar-On
(2002),
considers that emotional
intelligence and cognitive
intelligence contribute equally
to a person’s
general
intelligence, which eventually indicates potential success in one’s life.
Table 3 : Bar-On’s
Model of Emotional Intelligence
Components
Sub-components
Intrapersonal
Self Regard
Emotional Self-Awareness
Assertiveness
Independence
Self-Actualization
Interpersonal
Empathy
Social Responsibility
Interpersonal Relationship
Adaptability
Reality Testing
Flexibility
Problem Solving
Stress Management
Stress Tolerance
Impulse Control
General Mood Components
Optimism
Happiness
4.MEASURES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:
The commonly used instruments to measure
emotional intelligence are Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional intelligence
test (MSCEIT), Emotional
Quotient Inventory (EQ-i),
Emotional competence inventory(ECI), Emotional
Intelligence
appraisal (EIA),
Work Profile Questionnaire-Emotional Intelligence
Version (WPQei), Levels
of Emotional Awareness
Scale (LEAS) and Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test
(SREIT).
MSCEIT is a performance based measure in which specific
tasks are utilised to measure the level of ability of each branch
of emotional intelligence model developed by Mayer and
Salovey.Bar-on makes use of 133 self-report items to measure
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total IQ and the 5 components of his EI model in Emotional Quotient Inventory
(EQ-i).Emotional Competency Inventory
(ECI) is another self
report measure developed by Goleman which is a multi-rater instrument that
provides ratings on a
series of behavioral indicators of emotional
intelligence.Goleman devised two main measures of Emotional intelligence –
Emotional Intelligence Appraisal and Work Profile Questionniare to measure the four
components of his EI model and
Work Profile Questionniare-Emotional Intelligence
Version (WPQei) which
measures 7 of
Goleman’s competencies
viewed as most important for effective work performance.
The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale(LEAS) is a
self-
report measure of emotional intelligence intended to assess
the extent to which people are aware of emotions in both
themselves and others. The measure is based on a
hierarchical generalisation of emotional intelligence, more specifically
of emotional awareness, which consists of five sub-levels:
physical sensations, action tendencies, single emotions, blends
of emotion, and
blends of these
blends of emotional
experience (Lane and Schwartz,
1989). Self-Report Emotional
Intelligence Test (SREIT) is a 33-item measure of Salovey
and Mayer’s original concept of emotional intelligence. Some of
the other ways of measuring it are:
4.1 Reuven Bar-On's
EQ-i
A self-report test designed to measure competencies
including awareness, stress tolerance, problem solving, and
happiness. According to Bar-On, “Emotional intelligence is
an array of noncognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills
that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures.”
4.2 Multifactor
Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS)
An ability-based test in which test-takers perform tasks
designed to assess their ability to perceive, identify, understand,
and utilize emotions.
4.3 Seligman Attributional Style Questionnaire (SASQ)
Originally designed as a screening test for the life
insurance company Metropolitan Life, the SASQ measures optimism
and pessimism.
4.4 Emotional Competence
Inventory (ECI) Based on
an older instrument
known as the
Self-
Assessment Questionnaire, the ECI involves having people
who know the individual offer ratings of
that person’s abilities
on a number of different emotional competencies.
5.EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND RELATED CONSTRUCTS
Numerous researched has been undertaken in the field of
emotional intelligence and to establish its relationship with other
variables like academic achievement, personality, stress,
individual performance, conflict, leadership .
5.1Emotional intelligence and academic achievement
Earlier it was
beleived that obtaining good
academic results is primarily determined by general IQ of the students. But
today it is well
established fact that students can
achieve great heights in
academics if they
score good in emotional
intelligence along with
IQ. Emotional intelligence incorporates the important aspects of
interpersonal and intrapersonal
relationships, adaptability,moods, stress management skills
which have a profound effect on academic achievement of
students. Barr-on (2000) believes that having done a
effective efforts to take care of the students’ emotional and
social
needs can result
in the improvement
of their academic
performance. Taking into
account the impact
of emotional
intelligence on the
acdemic achievement of
students,different experts and
reserachers (Joibaria and
Mohammadtaherib,2011;
Vernon et al. ,2008;
Goleman, 1995; Peridisa,
Fredericksonb and Furnham,2002;
Abdullah,
Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli,2004; Lam and Kirby,2002;
Jaeger,2003; Panboli and Gopu,2011 presented several views about
the relationship between the two.
Joibaria and
Mohammadtaherib (2011) found
significant correlation between main components of emotional intelligence
including self motivation,
self-awareness,
self-regulation, social consciousness, social
skills and students’
academic
achievement.
Vernon et al.
(2008), Abdullah, Elias, Mahyuddin
and Uli (2004),
Rozell, Pettijohn and Parker
(2001),
Panboli and Gopu ( 2011)
noticed positive correlation between Ei
and academic perdormance. Peridisa, Fredericksonb
and Furnham(2002) analysed the role of trait emotional
intelligence in academic performance and in deviant behavior at
school on a sample of 650 pupils in british secondary
education. The findings indicated that pupils with high trait EI scores
were less likely
to have had
unauthorised absences and
less likely to
have been excluded
from school. Though
Dabrawskimk (2001)
confirmed neagtive correlation based on a research conducted
on 39 intelligent adolescents and
reached the conclusion
that emotional intelligence
does not help
these individuals to
have social and
academic
successes. Rozell, Pettijohn and Parker (2001) research
stressed upon the inclusion of emotional intelligence within the
core skills taught in training and development programmes.
Jaeger (2003) explored the effect of emotional intelligence
instruction on academic performance among a sample of 150
students of a general management graduate-level course in
the northern United States. It was seen that there is
statistically significant increase in EQ scores among the students who
completed the emotional intelligence curriculum compared
with scores of students in the group that was not given the
emotional intelligence curriculum.
5.2 Emotional intelligence and personality
Numerous authors have evaluated the emotional
intelligence construct with the personality dimensions (Higgs,
2001),
Godse and Thingujam (2010), Ramo, Saris and Boyatzis (2009),
Van Der Zee, Thijs, & Schakel, 2002. Also Bar-On and
Goleman models of
emotional intelligence are
found closely associated
with personality theory.Both
models have
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components and sub-components of
their theory of emotional intelligence which are similar to dimensions
which have
been previously studied under personality theory. Bar-On’
sub-components of assertiveness, interpersonal effectiveness,
empathy, impulse control,
social responsibility, and
reality testing have
all been considered
parts of personality
inventories. For example,Sjoberg (2001) devised a test
battery for use in the selection process in and was broadly based
on the notions
of emotional intelligence
and social competence.
In this selection
process, emotional intelligence
contributed variance above and beyond the standard scales of
personality. Likewise,the California Psychological Inventory
(CPI) contains scales that
include self-assurance, , self-acceptance, self-control, flexibility,
empathy and interpersonal
effectiveness.
Also many Goleman’s
competencies, including empathy,
self-control, and self-confidence have
been
extensively researched in personality psychology (Mayer,
Salovey, & Caruso, 2000).The overlap between components of
emotional
intelligence models and personality
theory is especially evident in
empirical comparisons of the
constructs.
Goleman’s
measure of emotional
intelligence, the Emotional
Competence Inventory, has
been found to
correlate
significantly
with three of the
Big Five Personality
factors: extroversion,
conscientiousness and
openness .One study
looked at the
relationship between the Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) and
emotional intelligence (Higgs, 2001). The
intuition aspect of
MBTI was found to be significantly correlated with higher levels of
emotional intelligence. Godse and
Thingujam (2010), Ramo, Saris and Boyatzis (2009) also
predicted a positive relationship bewteen Emotional intelligence
and personality.
Ramo, Saris and Boyatzis
(2009) found that both social and
emotional competencies and personality
traits are valuable
predictors of job
performance. Also, competencies
seemed to be
more powerful predictors
of
performance than the
personality traits. Others
investigated the relationship
of self and
other ratings of
emotional
intelligence (Van Der Zee, Thijs, & Schakel, 2002) and
concluded that the emotional intelligence dimensions were able to
predict both academic and social success above traditional
indicators of academic intelligence and personality (Van Der
Zee, Thijs, & Schakel, 2002).
5.3 Emotional intelligence in relation to stress
Stress is influenced by an individual’s ability to
manage and control
their emotions in the workplace. Researches have
been conducted to know
whether emotional intelligence plays a
prominent role in overcoming
stress and stress related
outcomes and it has been established that individuals who
scored high in emotional quotient
experienced better health
and well-being, displayed better management performance and
suffered less subjective stress and displayed better work
performance. (Kauts and Saroj ,2010; Slaski and
Cartwright,2002; Duran and Extremera ,2004 ;Darolia and Darolia, 2005;
Chabungban,2005 ; Abraham, 2000 ;Spector and Goh,2001).Kauts
and Saroj (2010) noticed emotional intelligence to be a
factor useful in reducing occupational stress of
teachers and enhancing their effectiveness in teaching.
Chabungban
(2005) proposed that
by developing emotional
intelligence one can
bridge the gap
between stress and
better
performance.In addition, it prevent negative emotions from
swamping the ability to think, feel motivated and confident and
to accurately perceive emotions, to empathise and get along
well with others. Gohm, Corser and Dalsky (2005) proposed
that emotional intelligence is potentially helpful in
reducing stress for some individuals, but unnecessary or irrelevant for
others which may be due to lack of confidence in their
emotional ability. Ismail, Suh-Suh, Ajis and Dollah (2009) confirmed
that the inclusion of emotional intelligence moderated the effect of occupational stress
on job performance.
5.4 Emotional intelligence and its association with conflict
handling
Ayoko, Callan and
Hartel (2008) The
suggested suggested that
teams with less
well-defined emotional intelligence
climates were associated
with increased task
and relationship conflict
and increased conflict
intensity. Godse and
Thingujam (2010), Srinivasan and George (2005), Jordan and
Troth (2004) suggested different problems expect different
styles of handling and
emotionally intelligent individuals are capable of applying the different and better style of
conflict
management styles
as the situation demands.
Lenaghan, Buda and
Eisner (2007) and Carmeli
(2003) revealed that
employees who score high in emotional intelligence are more
able to balance work-family conflict as they recognize and
manage feelings of conflict as they occur.
5.5 Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
C. L. Rice (1999) used an early ability model of emotional
intelligence developed by Mayer and Salovey to evaluate the
effectiveness of teams
and their leaders
and suggested that
emotional intelligence plays
a role in
effective team
leadership and
team performance. Kamran( 2010)
investigated whether Emotionally
intelligent leadership (EIL)
could
influence the faculty effectiveness and identificatified 10 components of EIL which
serve to improve the effectiveness of
the faculty members viz. self leadership, moral, trust,
conscientiousness, flexibility, participation, empowerment, capacity
building, communication and motivation. Michael A. Trabun (2002), Sitter (2004) and
Suhaila and Zahra (2013) noticed
revealed the significant and positive relationship between
leadership styles and emotional intelligence. Barling, Slater and
Kelloway (2000), Mandell
and Pherwani (2003),
Webb (2004), Srivastva
and Bharamanaikar (2004)
analysed the
predictive positive relationship of emotional intelligence
with transformational leadership style. Boyatzis and Ratti (2009) in
their study identified competencies that differentiated
effective managers and leaders. Results suggested that emotional,
social and cognitive intelligence competencies predict
performance.
5.6 Role of Emotional intelligence in academic settings
IQ alone would not serve its purpose in academics until and
unless emotional intelligence is also developed and nurtured
alongwith
it.Emotional intelligence aspects
are being avoided
in educational setting owing
to the main
emphasis on
academic scores and grades, due to which students lack the
basic social and emotional skills in their personality.Due to
the pressure exerted on the students by their parents and
teachers to excel in their examinations at an early age, youth
today is seen having a personality full of competitiveness
but lacking in empathy, patience and
concern for self’ emotions
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and emotions of
others.This eventually
results in poor
understanding of self
and of others,
poor responsiblity, less
confidence, poor handling of moods, emotions and
interpersonal relationships, more aggression
and stress visible in both
personal life and
academics. Deficiency of
unfulfilled emotional needs
make students fragile
in their moods
and
temperaments and they find it hard to face academic
challenges which require patience, zeal and optimistic approach to
achieve heights. It is higly recommended that the
educational institutions should also incorporate emotional intelligence in
their course curriculum so that the students can learn how effectively they
can manage and utilise their emotions
for a
positive outcome.Worshops and trainings should also be
conducted for the students after careful investigation of the social
and emotional skills they are lacking in. The major
responsiblity of developing and nurturing emotional needs lies in the
hands of teachers alongwith the academic
institutions.Teacher acts like a parent, guide, mentor and counsellor for their
students.
Teachers should undertake
this additional responsibility for
the emotional development
and well-being of
students.Also this will help students in managing their
anger, stress, conflict and disagreement with others. But there arise
a practical problem when the
teachers themselves are found to be emotionally weak. For this,
training andworkshops
should be
conducted for teachers
also so that they can
teach effectively the
emotional skills to the
students in the
classrooms.The
researchers also highlight the role
of emotional intelligence
tests while recruiting and selecting
new
teachers.Emotional intelligence programs are beneficial for
teachers also as through these progrmas they can satisfy their
psychological
and emotional needs and
assist in good job
persormance, organisational commitment
, personal and
organisatioal effectiveness, maintaining a balance between
work and personal life and most importantly overcoming work
stress.
5.7Emotional Intelligence and Teacher effectiveness
Teacher effectiveness is a multifaceted concept
incorporating all aspects of teachers’backgroun ds, skills, and dispositions,
ranging from personality to knowledge
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